Dr Dorothea Stumm, senior glaciologist at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, Nepal , says thawing of this invisible layer causes disturbances in natural systems, infrastructure and livelihoodPermafrost is invisible at the surface. It has received more attention in the Himalayas only in the last few years. In the Himalayas, very few studies exist on permafrost. The knowledge about permafrost distribution and processes is very limited for this region and its different climatic regimes.We know that permafrost distribution must be widespread in the Himalayas and from other parts of the world, we know that thawing permafrost affects various natural systems, infrastructure, and livelihoods. We must assume that climate change also affects the state of permafrost in the Himalayas, with consequences for landscapes, hazards, natural systems, and livelihoods. However, there are no existing studies on the impact of thawing permafrost in the Himalayas.For the Himalayas, it is difficult to say what the effects are and how many people will be affected. However, from other parts of the world, we know that permafrost thaw affects the stability of infrastructure, increases natural hazards (slope instabilities, debris flows, rock fall), and influences hydrology , which affects vegetation and ecosystems. For example, some areas become drier, while others become wetter, which can change biodiversity and plant communities.Greenhouse gases might also be released. Further studies are needed to better understand permafrost distribution, processes, and how per mafrost thaw impacts people and natural systems.Mapping permafrost is difficult because we cannot see permafrost at the surface.However, we can map features, such as rock glaciers, which indicate the likely presence of permafrost.ICIMOD has conducted a study mapping rock glaciers in randomly distributed areas in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. There are other institutions that have initiated similar studies, such as IHCAP. ICIMOD and its partners (e.g., the Indian National Institute of Hydrology) also monitor ground surface temperature at study sites in Nepal and India, which give some infor mation about the pos sible presence of permafrost un derneath.

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